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Home  ›  By What Reproductive Mechanism Does A Haploid Animal Grow?

By What Reproductive Mechanism Does A Haploid Animal Grow?

Written By Tuesday, May 24, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Reproduction process that creates a new organism by combining the genetic material of 2 organisms

In the first stage of sexual reproduction, "meiosis", the number of chromosomes is reduced from a diploid number (2n) to a haploid number (n). During "fecundation", haploid gametes come together to form a diploid zygote, and the original number of chromosomes is restored.

Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a complex life bike in which a gamete (such equally a sperm or egg cell) with a unmarried set up of chromosomes (haploid) combines with another to produce a zygote that develops into an organism composed of cells with two sets of chromosomes (diploid).[1] Sexual reproduction is the most mutual life cycle in multicellular eukaryotes, such equally animals, fungi and plants. Sexual reproduction does not occur in prokaryotes (organisms without cell nuclei), but they take processes with similar effects such every bit bacterial conjugation, transformation and transduction, which may have been precursors to sexual reproduction in early eukaryotes.

In the production of sexual activity cells in eukaryotes, diploid mother cells divide to produce haploid cells known as gametes in a process called meiosis that involves genetic recombination. The homologous chromosomes pair up and so that their Dna sequences are aligned with each other, and this is followed by exchange of genetic information between them. Two rounds of cell division then produce iv haploid gametes, each with half the number of chromosomes from each parent jail cell, just with the genetic data in the parental chromosomes recombined. Ii haploid gametes combine into one diploid cell known every bit a zygote in a process called fertilisation. The zygote incorporates genetic material from both gametes. Multiple cell divisions, without change of the number of chromosomes, so form a multicellular diploid phase or generation.

In human reproduction, each cell contains 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. Meiosis in the parents' gonads produces gametes that each comprise merely 23 chromosomes that are genetic recombinants of the DNA sequences contained in the parental chromosomes. When the nuclei of the gametes come together to course a fertilized egg or zygote, each cell of the resulting kid will have 23 chromosomes from each parent, or 46 in total.[2] [iii]

In plants merely, the diploid phase, known every bit the sporophyte, produces spores by meiosis that germinate and so dissever past mitosis to form a haploid multicellular phase, the gametophyte, that produces gametes directly past mitosis. This blazon of life bicycle, involving alternation between two multicellular phases, the sexual haploid gametophyte and asexual diploid sporophyte, is known equally alternation of generations.

The development of sexual reproduction is considered paradoxical,[iii] because asexual reproduction should be able to outperform it as every young organism created can bear its own immature. This implies that an asexual population has an intrinsic chapters to grow more than rapidly with each generation.[iv] This 50% cost is a fitness disadvantage of sexual reproduction.[v] The two-fold cost of sex activity includes this cost and the fact that whatever organism can only laissez passer on l% of its ain genes to its offspring. One definite advantage of sexual reproduction is that it impedes the accumulation of genetic mutations.[6]

Sexual option is a mode of natural pick in which some individuals out-reproduce others of a population because they are improve at securing mates for sexual reproduction.[7] [8] It has been described equally "a powerful evolutionary forcefulness that does not exist in asexual populations."[9]

Evolution [edit]

The get-go fossilized testify of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes is from the Stenian period, well-nigh 1.05  billion years ago.[10] [11]

Biologists studying development propose several explanations for the development of sexual reproduction and its maintenance. These reasons include reducing the likelihood of the aggregating of deleterious mutations, increasing rate of adaptation to changing environments,[12] dealing with competition, Deoxyribonucleic acid repair and masking deleterious mutations.[13] [14] [15] All of these ideas near why sexual reproduction has been maintained are mostly supported, but ultimately the size of the population determines if sexual reproduction is entirely beneficial. Larger populations appear to reply more quickly to some of the benefits obtained through sexual reproduction than exercise smaller population sizes.[16]

Maintenance of sexual reproduction has been explained past theories that work at several levels of option, though some of these models remain controversial.[ commendation needed ] However, newer models presented in recent years suggest a basic advantage for sexual reproduction in slowly reproducing complex organisms.

Sexual reproduction allows these species to exhibit characteristics that depend on the specific environment that they inhabit, and the particular survival strategies that they utilize.[17]

Sexual selection [edit]

In gild to reproduce sexually, both males and females need to find a mate. Mostly in animals mate choice is fabricated by females while males compete to be chosen. This can lead organisms to farthermost efforts in order to reproduce, such equally gainsay and brandish, or produce extreme features acquired by a positive feedback known equally a Fisherian runaway. Thus sexual reproduction, as a class of natural selection, has an event on evolution. Sexual dimorphism is where the basic phenotypic traits vary between males and females of the aforementioned species. Dimorphism is found in both sex organs and in secondary sexual activity characteristics, body size, physical strength and morphology, biological decoration, behavior and other actual traits. However, sexual selection is only implied over an extended menses of fourth dimension leading to sexual dimorphism.[xviii]

Animals [edit]

Insects [edit]

Insect species make up more than two-thirds of all extant animal species. Most insect species reproduce sexually, though some species are facultatively parthenogenetic. Many insects species take sexual dimorphism, while in others the sexes await almost identical. Typically they accept two sexes with males producing spermatozoa and females ova. The ova develop into eggs that have a roofing called the chorion, which forms earlier internal fertilization. Insects take very diverse mating and reproductive strategies most often resulting in the male depositing spermatophore within the female person, which she stores until she is ready for egg fertilization. Afterward fertilization, and the germination of a zygote, and varying degrees of evolution, in many species the eggs are deposited outside the female; while in others, they develop farther inside the female and are born live.

Mammals [edit]

There are three extant kinds of mammals: monotremes, placentals and marsupials, all with internal fertilization. In placental mammals, offspring are born equally juveniles: consummate animals with the sex activity organs nowadays although non reproductively functional. After several months or years, depending on the species, the sexual practice organs develop further to maturity and the brute becomes sexually mature. Most female mammals are merely fertile during certain periods during their estrous bicycle, at which point they are set to mate. Private male and female person mammals meet and behave out copulation.[ citation needed ] For most mammals, males and females exchange sexual partners throughout their adult lives.[xix] [twenty] [21]

Fish [edit]

The vast bulk of fish species lay eggs that are then fertilized by the male.[22] Some species lay their eggs on a substrate similar a rock or on plants, while others besprinkle their eggs and the eggs are fertilized as they drift or sink in the water column.

Some fish species utilize internal fertilization and then disperse the developing eggs or give nascence to live offspring. Fish that have live-begetting offspring include the guppy and mollies or Poecilia. Fishes that give birth to live immature tin be ovoviviparous, where the eggs are fertilized inside the female person and the eggs but hatch inside the female torso, or in seahorses, the male carries the developing young within a pouch, and gives birth to live young.[23] Fishes can also be viviparous, where the female person supplies nourishment to the internally growing offspring. Some fish are hermaphrodites, where a single fish is both male person and female person and tin can produce eggs and sperm. In hermaphroditic fish, some are male and female at the same time while in other fish they are serially hermaphroditic; starting as one sex and changing to the other. In at to the lowest degree ane hermaphroditic species, cocky-fertilization occurs when the eggs and sperm are released together. Internal self-fertilization may occur in some other species.[24] One fish species does not reproduce past sexual reproduction but uses sex to produce offspring; Poecilia formosa is a unisex species that uses a form of parthenogenesis called gynogenesis, where unfertilized eggs develop into embryos that produce female offspring. Poecilia formosa mate with males of other fish species that use internal fertilization, the sperm does non fertilize the eggs but stimulates the growth of the eggs which develops into embryos.[25]

Plants [edit]

Animals accept life cycles with a single diploid multicellular phase that produces haploid gametes directly by meiosis. Male gametes are called sperm, and female gametes are called eggs or ova. In animals, fertilization of the ovum past a sperm results in the formation of a diploid zygote that develops by repeated mitotic divisions into a diploid adult. Plants have two multicellular life-cycle phases, resulting in an alternation of generations. Institute zygotes germinate and divide repeatedly by mitosis to produce a diploid multicellular organism known every bit the sporophyte. The mature sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that germinate and split up past mitosis to form a multicellular gametophyte phase that produces gametes at maturity. The gametophytes of different groups of plants vary in size. Mosses and other pteridophytic plants may have gametophytes consisting of several million cells, while angiosperms accept as few every bit three cells in each pollen grain.

Flowering plants [edit]

Flowers contain the sexual organs of flowering plants.

Flowering plants are the dominant establish form on land[26] : 168, 173 and they reproduce either sexually or asexually. Often their most distinguishing feature is their reproductive organs, ordinarily called flowers. The anther produces pollen grains which incorporate the male gametophytes that produce sperm nuclei. For pollination to occur, pollen grains must attach to the stigma of the female reproductive structure (carpel), where the female gametophytes are located within ovules enclose within the ovary. After the pollen tube grows through the carpel'south style, the sexual practice cell nuclei from the pollen grain migrate into the ovule to fertilize the egg prison cell and endosperm nuclei within the female gametophyte in a process termed double fertilization. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, while the triploid endosperm (one sperm jail cell plus two female cells) and female tissues of the ovule give rise to the surrounding tissues in the developing seed. The ovary, which produced the female gametophyte(s), then grows into a fruit, which surrounds the seed(s). Plants may either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate.

In 2013, flowers dating from the Cretaceous (100 million years before nowadays) were found encased in amber, the oldest evidence of sexual reproduction in a flowering plant. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower'southward stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting information technology was carried by insects.[27]

Nonflowering plants like ferns, moss and liverworts use other ways of sexual reproduction.

Ferns [edit]

Ferns produce large diploid sporophytes with rhizomes, roots and leaves. Fertile leaves produce sporangia that incorporate haploid spores. The spores are released and germinate to produce small, sparse gametophytes that are typically heart shaped and green in color. The gametophyte prothalli, produce motile sperm in the antheridia and egg cells in archegonia on the aforementioned or different plants. After rains or when dew deposits a film of water, the motile sperm are splashed away from the antheridia, which are normally produced on the height side of the thallus, and swim in the motion-picture show of h2o to the archegonia where they fertilize the egg. To promote out crossing or cross fertilization the sperm are released before the eggs are receptive of the sperm, making it more probable that the sperm will fertilize the eggs of dissimilar thallus. Subsequently fertilization, a zygote is formed which grows into a new sporophytic plant. The condition of having dissever sporophyte and gametophyte plants is chosen alternation of generations. Other plants with similar life cycles include Psilotum, Lycopodium and Equisetum.

Bryophytes [edit]

The bryophytes, which include liverworts, hornworts and mosses, reproduce both sexually and vegetatively. They are small plants found growing in moist locations and similar ferns, have motile sperm with flagella and need water to facilitate sexual reproduction. These plants first as a haploid spore that grows into the dominant gametophyte form, which is a multicellular haploid torso with leaf-like structures that photosynthesize. Haploid gametes are produced in antheridia (male person) and archegonia (female) by mitosis. The sperm released from the antheridia reply to chemicals released by ripe archegonia and swim to them in a film of water and fertilize the egg cells thus producing a zygote. The zygote divides past mitotic division and grows into a multicellular, diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte produces spore capsules (sporangia), which are connected by stalks (setae) to the archegonia. The spore capsules produce spores by meiosis and when ripe the capsules flare-up open to release the spores. Bryophytes testify considerable variation in their reproductive structures and the above is a basic outline. Also in some species each plant is one sex (dioicous) while other species produce both sexes on the same found (monoicous).[28]

Fungi [edit]

Puffballs emitting spores

Fungi are classified by the methods of sexual reproduction they employ. The issue of sexual reproduction most often is the production of resting spores that are used to survive inclement times and to spread. There are typically three phases in the sexual reproduction of fungi: plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis. The cytoplasm of 2 parent cells fuse during plasmogamy and the nuclei fuse during karyogamy. New haploid gametes are formed during meiosis and develop into spores. The adaptive ground for the maintenance of sexual reproduction in the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota (dikaryon) fungi was reviewed by Wallen and Perlin.[29] They concluded that the most plausible reason for maintaining this capability is the benefit of repairing DNA damage, caused by a diversity of stresses, through recombination that occurs during meiosis.[29]

Leaner and archaea [edit]

3 distinct processes in prokaryotes are regarded as similar to eukaryotic sex: bacterial transformation, which involves the incorporation of foreign Dna into the bacterial chromosome; bacterial conjugation, which is a transfer of plasmid DNA betwixt bacteria, but the plasmids are rarely incorporated into the bacterial chromosome; and gene transfer and genetic exchange in archaea.

Bacterial transformation involves the recombination of genetic material and its function is mainly associated with Dna repair. Bacterial transformation is a circuitous process encoded past numerous bacterial genes, and is a bacterial accommodation for Dna transfer.[13] [14] This procedure occurs naturally in at least twoscore bacterial species.[thirty] For a bacterium to bind, accept up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must enter a special physiological state referred to as competence (see Natural competence). Sexual reproduction in early on unmarried-celled eukaryotes may have evolved from bacterial transformation,[15] or from a similar process in archaea (see beneath).

On the other hand, bacterial conjugation is a type of direct transfer of DNA betwixt two bacteria mediated by an external appendage called the conjugation pilus.[31] Bacterial conjugation is controlled past plasmid genes that are adapted for spreading copies of the plasmid between bacteria. The infrequent integration of a plasmid into a host bacterial chromosome, and the subsequent transfer of a part of the host chromosome to another cell do not appear to be bacterial adaptations.[13] [32]

Exposure of hyperthermophilic archaeal Sulfolobus species to Dna damaging conditions induces cellular aggregation accompanied by high frequency genetic marker exchange.[33] [34] Ajon et al.[34] hypothesized that this cellular aggregation enhances species-specific DNA repair by homologous recombination. DNA transfer in Sulfolobus may be an early course of sexual interaction like to the more well-studied bacterial transformation systems that as well involve species-specific Dna transfer leading to homologous recombinational repair of Deoxyribonucleic acid damage.

See too [edit]

  • Amphimixis (psychology)
  • Anisogamy
  • Biological reproduction
  • Hermaphroditism
  • Isogamy
  • Mate choice
  • Mating in fungi
  • Operational sex ratio
  • Outcrossing
  • Allogamy
  • Cocky-incompatibility
  • Sex
  • Sexual intercourse
  • Transformation (genetics)

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

  • Pang, K. "Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts", Hong Kong, 2004
  • Journal of Biological science of Reproduction, accessed in Baronial 2005.
  • "Sperm Employ Heat Sensors To Find The Egg; Weizmann Institute Research Contributes To Agreement Of Homo Fertilization", Scientific discipline Daily, three February 2003
  • Michod, RE; Levin, Be, eds. (1987). The Development of sex: An examination of electric current ideas . Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. ISBN978-0878934584.
  • Michod, RE (1994). Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of Sex. Perseus Books. ISBN978-0201407549.

External links [edit]

  • Khan Academy, video lecture

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproduction

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